Learning Theories–A Foundation for Instructional Design

If you have been reading this blog through the course, you have seen some of my thoughts on the topics of learning theories, learning styles, technology, and how it all impacts instructional design.  This post is an end-of-course reflection on how it all comes together.  For that reason, it is longer than most but I hope you find it useful. 

We all remember back to our formative years in elementary, middle, and high school and have varying feelings about those years depending on how our school experience played out.  Some of us walked away loving school and learning, while others struggled and may now dread any learning activity.   There could be many reasons for this dichotomy—a bad or good experience with a teacher or peers, a learning environment that did not match our particular learning style, or a lack of support needed to make the experience a successful and rewarding one.  Cercone in the article Characteristics of Adult Learners with Implications for Online Learning Design, says that all learners are different because they have been shaped by their own experiences; because of that we need “to consider culture, physiology, cognitive style, learning styles, and personality (2008, p. 146).  As an instructional designer we cannot affect the way an instructor teaches, but we can design the curriculum to incorporate material that accommodates different learning theories/styles/modalities to reach a variety of students and provide support through scaffolding and sequencing to enable students to learn effectively.  This course provided a strong foundation in learning theories which will help me further my career as an instructional designer.  So what did I learn (pun definitely intended!)?        

 Having been brought up in the normal public school system, I was very familiar with behaviorism and the teaching methods associated with that particular learning theory; with the cognitive learning theory because we use it extensively in my current teaching and development environment by creating learning objectives using Bloom’s Taxonomy to sequence information to progress through the various learning levels [Ertmer and Newby describe using simplification and standardization to size or chunk information so the learner can learn parts of a concept and then bring it all together for application (1993, p. 60)]; and adult learning theory through my faculty development program at work (we strictly teach adults).  I was not, however, familiar with some of the more recent learning theories such as constructivism or connectivism.  Connectivism made total sense to me given the way most of us learn today due to the technology and resources we now have available, and I will admit that my first stops when researching or learning new information are the internet, communities of practice, or other online resources.  And now I have a new tool in my arsenal—blogs.  These will allow me to keep up to date on current trends and learn from some of the key practitioners in the fields I am interested in.

Constructivism was not as intuitive for me and I have to admit that radical constructivism seems strange to me (there is only reality in what we construct ourselves) because I do feel there are some things that are concrete (theory of gravity) while others are subject to interpretation (religion, politics, etc).  As my thinking was challenged by the readings and other students, I began to take a closer look at constructivism and I “shook off the limiting perspective” I had carried into the learning experience (Cercone, 2008, p. 149).  I discovered that I do like a lot of the teaching and educational implications of this learning theory—for example, apprenticeships and learning concepts by solving real world problems.  According to Ertmer and Newby, the ultimate measure of learning is based on how effective the learner is in performing within the system where those tools are actually used (1993, p. 64).  Because of that I would like to be able to implement this theory more extensively in my educational environment but many of the roadblocks mentioned by the various authors in the course will make it challenging—primarily the additional time needed and the requirement for testing to “prove” learning occurred (because our courses lead to a career field certification).  I know I cannot implement this on a wholesale basis, but I do plan to implement this theory in some lessons/courses.  As our text tells us, the most straightforward recommendations are to involve students actively in their learning and to provide experiences that challenge their thinking and force them to rearrange their beliefs” (2009, p. 188).  I can do this in my environment by building in internet research and smaller projects allowing the students to further expand on topics/concepts from their own jobs.  Based on what I have learned, this should enhance my students’ learning.

 Through this course, I also deepened my understanding regarding my own learning styles.  I was always successful in school so the traditional methods worked for me, but I have found as I have grown older that I prefer a more loosely structured learning environment where I can learn in my own way, more informally.  I do still enjoy learning in a classroom but as a student I would like to see more technology and alternate methods of delivery incorporated—simulations and mobile learning.  As I discussed in last week’s blog assignment, I use all the learning theories to a certain degree based on the topic and my familiarity with it.  I also tend to use most of the modalities we discussed (auditory, visual, kinesthetic, verbal) based on the type of information being learned.  For these reasons, I like a variety of instructional methods and techniques to address all of these aspects of myself, and this variety in educational presentation is supported by research.  As our text tells us, it has been shown that “multidimensional classrooms are more likely to motivate all students because they feature more differentiation” (2009, p. 202). Learning this about myself will help me be a more effective instructional designer because I can tailor curriculum development to appeal to these differences thereby reaching a wider variety of students in my classrooms. 

 So the big question that arises from my journey of self-discovery is this—what does this mean for us as instructional designers as we consider the connections between learning theories, learning styles, technology  and motivation?  We have already defined the various learning theories, but as we consider this question we also need to review some additional definitions.  According to Frisby in “Learning Styles”, they are defined as “habitual patterns in how a person learns or prefers to learn” (2005, p. 295).  Armstrong in Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom, says that a “style designates a general approach that an individual can apply to every conceivable content” (2009, p. 17).  We know that learners will have developed different preferences to learning based on their own experiences in the classroom and what their “traditional” school environment was like.   Because of that learners typically lean toward one or two comfortable styles of learning, however staying with that particular style may not fully enhance their learning effectiveness.  Research has shown that “learners with different characteristics may not only prefer, but benefit from, different instructional features and goals” so having the option for varied learning environments is warranted (Cercone, 2008, p. 138).  ).  This ties in directly with using a mix of learning theories as curriculum is developed.

 Another important concept is the learning modality.  A learning modality is defined by Frisby as a perceptual pathway “through which the individual naturally learns best from the environment” such as visual, auditory, verbal or kinesthetic (2005, p. 297).  By integrating these modalities we can reach different learners or different strengths of the same learner.  It has been shown that “the use of visuals with text creates connections between the two that encourages learners to process information more deeply.  When this occurs, long term memory is strengthened”  (O’Bannon, Puckett, & Rakes, 2006, p. 128).  When designing curriculum, I would like to use technology or other resources to present the material verbally (something to read/text on screen), visually (using graphics or handouts for the students to see), and with sound (talking about the concept or watching a video or listening to a podcast) for those who lean toward the auditory spectrum.  One way to do this for visual learners would be to use graphic organizers like mind maps which have been shown to align with the theory of multiple intelligences.  As I have gone through this course, I have discovered that I also prefer the mix of modalities to stimulate my brain which has been shown to be one of the keys to motivation. 

 Motivation is key to learning—students that are motivated will be more likely to internalize and retain the information presented in class.  There are many factors that influence motivation and theories that have been proposed to enhance motivation.  The ARCS model (Attention, Relevance, Confidence, Satisfaction) is an attempt to synthesize behavioral, cognitive, and affective learning theories and demonstrate that learner motivation can be influenced through external conditions such as instructional materials (Huett, Huett, Young, Moller, & Bray, 2008, p. 114).  By addressing these factors, we can enhance motivation.  So what is the best way to do this?  There probably is not one best way but I firmly believe we can achieve this by incorporating a variety of learning theories, modalities, and technology into our curriculum.  If a balance is achieved, all students will be taught partly in a manner they prefer, which leads to an increased comfort level and willingness to learn, and partly in a less preferred manner, which provides practice and feedback in ways of thinking and solving problems which they may not initially be comfortable with but which they will have to use to be fully effective professional” (Gilbert & Swanier, 2008, p. 30). 

 Overall I found this course and the material presented very compelling because it challenges me as a teacher and developer to be well-rounded and think of different and engaging ways to present material from many angles to reach as many students as possible.  All students are different and even if they think they learn best one way, I think by viewing information from different lenses more sections of their brain are involved and they will remember and learn the material more effectively.  For this reason, I will try to incorporate as many of the learning theories and modalities that make sense based on the learning topic; to enhance motivation and provide additional resources for the students I will incorporate technology where it enhances learning.  Since most of my learners are adults, I need to keep in mind that “adult learners are most interested in learning about subjects that have immediate relevance to their job or personal life (Conlan, Grabowski, & Smith, p. 2), so I would also design instruction around real world problems that allows students to readily see how the material is relevant to their current needs and goals.  This also meets the principle of using problem-centered rather than subject-centered learning for adults which falls into the Constructivist realm.  Kim, in the article Social Constructivsm, identifies approaches which include “reciprocal teaching, peer collaboration, cognitive apprenticeships, problem-based instruction, webquests, anchored instruction and other methods that involve learning with others” (2001, p. 4).  These types of learning approaches, if used appropriately, should provide a stimulating learning environment and aid in the transfer of classroom knowledge to the real world. 

 To summarize, I go back to a quote from an article by Ertmer and Newby which truly resonated with me and has stayed in my mind during the entire course.  The last few paragraphs in the Ertmer and Newby reading sum up the need to use multiple approaches depending on the situation, the learners, and the specific tasks involved.  The first part of this quote comes from P. B. Drucker (cited in Snelbecker, 1983) and the final part is from Ertmer and Newby. 

“”These old controversies have been phonies all along.  We need the behaviorist’s triad of practice/reinforcement/feedback to enlarge learning and memory.  We need purpose, decision, values, understanding—the cognitive categories—lest learning be mere behavioral activities rather than action.”  “And to this we would add that we also need adaptive learners who are able to function well when optimal conditions do not exist, when situations are unpredictable and task demands change, when the problems are messy and ill-formed and the solutions depend on inventiveness, improvisation, discussion, and social negotiation.” (1993, p. 70). 

In this day and age, we need adaptive learners because the pace of change is so rapid.  If we are tied to one way and can’t think critically, we will fall behind.  In the case of instructional design, one size does not fit all.  We need to be creative and bring all the tools in our arsenal to bear to provide students with the most engaging, thought-provoking and challenging instruction we can while providing them the support and scaffolding to succeed.  Wow, this should be a fun ride.  

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In the event you would like to follow up on any of the material above, I am including the references.  

Armstrong, T. (2000). Multiple intelligences in the classroom (2nd ed.). Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Cercone, K. (2008). Characteristics of adult learners with implications for online learning design. AACE Journal, 16(2), 137–159. Retrieved from http://www.editlib.org/index.cfm?fuseaction=Reader.ViewAbstract&paper_id=24286

Conlan, J., Grabowski, S., & Smith, K. (2003). Adult learning. In M. Orey (Ed.), Emerging perspectives on learning, teaching, and technology. Retrieved from http://projects.coe.uga.edu/epltt/index.php?title=Adult_Learning

Ertmer, P. A., & Newby, T. J. (1993). Behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism: Comparing critical features from an instructional design perspective. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 6(4), 50–71.

Frisby, C. L. (2005). Learning styles. In S. W. Lee (Ed.), Encyclopedia of school psychology. Retrieved from Sage Reference Online database.

Gilbert, J., & Swanier, C. (2008). Learning styles: How do they fluctuate? Institute for Learning Styles Journal [Vol. l]. Retrieved from http://www.auburn.edu/~witteje/ilsrj/Journal%20Volumes/Fall%202008%20Volume%201%20PDFs/Learning%20Styles%20How%20do%20They%20Fluctuate.pdf

Huett, J., Moller, L., Young, J., Bray, M., & Huett, K. (2008). Supporting the distant student: The effect of ARCS-based strategies on confidence and performance. Quarterly Review of Distance Education, 9(2), 113–126.

Kim, B. (2001). Social constructivism. In M. Orey (Ed.), Emerging perspectives on learning, teaching, and technology. Retrieved from http://projects.coe.uga.edu/epltt/index.php?title=Social_Constructivism

O’Bannon, B., Puckett, K., & Rakes, G. (2006, March). Using technology to support visual learning strategies. Computers in the Schools, 23(1/2), 125–137.

Ormrod, J., Schunk, D., & Gredler, M. (2009). Learning theories and instruction (Laureate custom edition). New York: Pearson.

 

 

My Learning Journey–Keep It Coming

In the beginning of this journey to discover and understand the learning theories prevalent in the educational field today, I found myself in agreement with many of the authors we read who support using aspects of all the learning theories as we teach students.  The theories we evaluated at the beginning were the behaviorist theory, the cognitive theory, and the constructivist theory.  During my first evaluation, I could see where I had used and continue to use all these theories in my own learning.  The theory depends on the type of knowledge I am endeavoring to learn at that point in time. 

Since that time, we have also been introduced to social learning, connectivism, and adult learning theories.  While I see my learning explained by the first three theories, I also see application of the final three—although I consider them to be less learning theories than applications of learning theories.  Social learning and connectivism have arisen because of the growth of technology enabling us to share information in a real time environment, to access a plethora of knowledge and sources, and collaborate with others to enhance everyone’s understanding.  Adult learning theories are a specialized area that explains the particular needs and aspects of adult learners—but in my view, adults still learn using one or all of the “big three” of behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism. 

So back to how I learn.  As I said above, I believe I learn using all three theories to some degree and I don’t think how I learn has changed but I do think that the resources available to me to learn and access information have expanded.  I have also learned a few new learning strategies that I know will come in very handy.  Let’s look at an example of a topic I will be pursuing in the near future as a result of this course—learning to program so I can create a simulation and mobile app to assist my students in reviewing and practicing necessary skills for earned value management (EVM).  I became very excited about this over the past week as we reviewed technology with educational promise.  The ones I found most compelling were mobile apps (for phones and tablets) and games/simulation because students could access them from just about anywhere to practice application of key skills and review conceptual knowledge.  In addition, the graphical interfaces and “fun factor” make apps and simulations appealing to people use all the various learning modalities (visual, auditory, and kinesthetic) by combining graphics with sound and body motions.  Some of my students are intimidated by the math and analysis skills involved with EVM and I believe that a virtual simulation along with a mobile app will provide them great opportunities to review the skills they need to be successful in their courses.  But I digress—how will I use the various learning theories as I pursue this new knowledge.  Let’s consider them:

•  Behaviorist:  useful for task-based learning involving memorization and information involving lots of repetition.  From a software programming perspective, I expect there will be programming rules and nomenclature that I will need to learn—memorize.  I will also need to practice programming through repetition.
• Cognitive:  involves reasoning, problem solving and utilizing learning strategies.  One of the learning strategies I was introduced to during this course was to apply meaning to pieces of information to help remembering—rather than just trying to memorize.  An example I discussed one week was the phone number to text my favorite radio station to find the last song played.  In the past, I have tried to memorize it because it inevitably comes on while I am driving and can’t write it down.  The last time I heard it was the week we reviewed different learning strategies so I gave it a try; lo and behold it worked and even weeks later I can still recall that phone number.  Yippee!  I am sure I will use some of these learning strategies as I learn how to write software programs for my projects.  Also, software programming is very logic-based so I have no doubt that reasoning and problem solving will come into play. 
•  Constructivism:  involves the learner as an active participant using real world scenarios integrated curriculum.  According to the theorists, it also involves a Most Knowledgeable Other (the expert) imparting knowledge to the novice and the Zone of Proximal Development which expands as the novice learns more and more from the MKO.  Memory under this theory takes the new knowledge and remixes it with prior knowledge.  In this case, I have had programming although it was a long time ago so I do have some prior knowledge that I can use as I learn the new programming languages.  I will definitely be actively involved in my learning and applying it to the real world task of creating my products.  At first I didn’t understand this theory, but as I reviewed it I could see how it explains many of the ways I like to learn through collaboration, integrating material across subjects, and learning through application to real, relevant issues. 
•  Social Learning/Connectivism:  I had never considered this before as a theory but it certainly explains how I like to learn as mentioned above through collaboration and teamwork.  It has also expanded my view of the sources available to me to explore topics and gain knowledge.  I have always used the internet as a resource to Google information but I was only vaguely familiar with blogs and had never set up RSS feeds.  I have also been a big fan of communities of practice because we have a very large network of CoPs where I work and I use them often to find out the latest and greatest.  I will be using these theories by searching the web for blogs dealing with programming and developing mobile apps.  I want to see what the body of knowledge is out there and the tips/advice the experts have for newbies to developing simulations and apps.
•  Adult Learning:  I had been introduced to this in my ISD class for my job so it was familiar.  I do see myself in many of the tenets of self-directed learning, internal motivation, and a wealth of life/work experiences.  In addition, my primary motivations for learning are to apply knowledge immediately to real world issues I am encountering now.  I also use this theory daily as I create and present curriculum for the adult learners who attend my courses. 

 Technology plays a big role in how I learn.  One of the first places I go for information is via the computer and the internet.  Over the weekend, I spent quite a bit of time going through the apps in iTunesU to see what courses were out there for app development and technology/learning.  I found numerous courses which I am excited to pursue—if I have any time left after work and my Walden courses! 

I also plan to search out websites that discuss software programming and app/simulation development.  The 2012 Horizon Report listed some sites I will pursue and I want to find blogs as well.  And let’s face it, this endeavor revolves around technology so I will have to use it to apply the knowledge and procedures I will be learning.  I also use technology to create documents and spreadsheets, communicate with teachers/students, and store my files.  I like gadgets and technology so I find it very important in most aspects of my life to include education.  

Lifelong, continual learning—bring it on!!

Connectivism–My Learning Network and How It’s Changed

Our assignment in class this week was to create a mind map of our learning connections because this week we studied adult learning and Connectivism.  In the article Connectivism From Emerging Perspectives on Learning, Teaching, and Technology by Davis, Edmunds, & Kelly-Bateman, connectivism is defined by George Siemens as being “driven by the understanding that decisions are based on rapidly altering foundations.  New information is continually being acquired and the ability to draw distinctions between important and unimportant information is vital.  Also critical is the ability to recognize when new information alters the landscape based on decisions made yesterday” (2008, p. 2).  George Siemens in our class video segment also presents connectivism as a learning theory “that integrates technology, social networks, and information” that deals with “complex environments that are system-based” which means the learner is a key consideration but the environment the learner exists in is also critical. 

As I developed my mind map I first went to the technology platforms I use when I need to find information like Google.  It was only after I thought about those resources that I then considered the more traditional resources like libraries, teachers, and classrooms (funny because I am a teacher J).  When I was first in school we didn’t have computers (I know but there really was a time before computers) so learning was done primarily by reading books either textbooks or books checked out from the library; gaining information from people like teachers/parents/peers; and formal courses.  Even when I entered the workforce and had to develop a cost estimate for a new airplane, we had to dig through technical libraries to find information on previous programs we could use.  It was very time consuming, laborious, and location dependent (if it wasn’t in the library at my location, chances were I didn’t know it existed).  Now with the internet and global connectivity, the problem isn’t a lack of information but rather often information overload.  As mentioned above, being able to distinguish the important from the unimportant (or true vs. invalid) is a key component of learning and gathering information.

So how has my network changed how I learn?  Well, I would say the biggest change is having immediate access to multiple sources of information via the web through Google, blogs, wikis, YouTube, and more.  I’ll give you an example.  Over the past weekend, my central air conditioner went out in my home.  In the past, I would have tried to call friends to find out who they had used for a similar issue or just started calling through the phone book.  This time, I joined Angie’s List and checked out the Better Business Bureau online.  I was able to get “recommendations” from people I will never meet because of the access and interactivity of the web.  Another example was trying to figure out how to unclog the drain in my dishwasher.  Before, I would have either driven to Lowe’s and asked someone or checked out or purchased a book.  This time I went to You Tube and found several videos posted by people teaching me how to conquer my problem.  These examples point out the fact that my network has expanded beyond what used to be possible—greater access to people and resources than ever thought possible.  Of course, the traditional resources are still available but now I can probably access an eBook rather than driving to the library and having late fees because I forgot to return it on time.  🙂

The way I learn has stayed basically the same but I have access to many more resources and thoughts/ideas from people I would never have contact with.  This has also increased the social aspect of learning because anyone can post a video on You Tube or add to a wiki article or blog in their area of expertise.  So when I need to learn something new that doesn’t involve a classroom setting (informal learning), I first go to Google and that will lead me to resources on the web like blogs, books, articles, videos, etc.  This is my first resource because it is almost instantaneous.  From that point, I may then order a book or talk to friends or peers knowledgeable in the area.  I have now discovered blogs (before the course but even more now with the ISD resources) and You Tube.  Previously I thought You Tube was just for funny videos or people singing but now I know there are a lot of informational videos that can be used for learning.  It has actually given me the idea to do some videos for my courses and students to give them mini-lessons that would be more interactive—kind of like a visual podcast (I also like podcasts to listen to for learning—can replay as often as needed). 

For me this exercise really solidifies and supports Connectivism.  With the internet and all the resources that have sprung up as a result of it, there is so much access to information.  Davis, Edmunds, and Kelly-Bateman listed seven principles of Connectivism.  They are:

1. 1.       “Learning and knowledge rest in diversity of opinions.
2. 2.      Learning is a process of connecting specialized nodes or information sources.
3. 3.      Learning may reside in non-human appliances.
4. 4.      Capacity to know more is more critical than what is currently known.
5. 5.      Nurturing and maintaining connections is needed to facilitate continual learning.
6. 6.      Ability to see connections between fields, ideas, and concepts is a core skill.
7. 7.      Currency (accurate, up-to-date knowledge) is the intent of all connectivist learning activities.” (2008, p. 3).

My personal network supports many of these tenets—I do seek diversity of opinions and have found my access to diverse outlooks has been enhanced with blogs.  The internet does connect specialized nodes of information by providing pages and pages of resources when an internet search is carried out–often too much information so being able to evaluate the currency of accurate, up-to-date information is crucial.  Because of the access to such a wealth of information, the fourth tenet is definitely supported—there is much more to learn than what is currently known.  As I started going through and adding blogs to my RSS feeds, it quickly became apparent that keeping up on all the blogs I am interested in could be a full time job!  That won’t happen so I will have to check them out over time and decide which ones I feel most connected with and challenged by.  Nurturing and maintaining these connections will allow me to continue to learn and incorporate the cutting ideas in the field to my work.  I love learning so having access to even more resources is exciting. 

What are some of the other resources you use?  I would love to check them out too.